Land use in London

There are various types of land use in London including industrial, commercial and residential. The 'central business district' in London consists of three areas:

1. The west end
2. The docklands
3. Centre of the city

Each of these areas contains high value, high density and high rise buildings. These are all located in the centre of London where there is a major transport link such as the River Thames.

Surrounding this area, there is the inner city housing which consists of cheap, compact housing originally built for the factory workers. These are usually the most deprived. Examples include Tower Hamlets and Newham.

Surrounding the inner city, the inner suburbs are situated. These include quite affluent areas such as Camden and Greenwich. The housing here is not as cramped and there is still good access to the CBD.

The outer suburbs such as Edgware and Golders Green are the most affluent places with high value properties. The housing here is spacious, there is hardly any air pollution and there is good access to the CBD through transport links hence many people can commute to work regularly in a small time.

Deprivation and poverty in HIC cities.

The multiple deprivation index contains all the factors that may affect their wellbeing.

Deprivation is defined as the standard by which a person's wellbeing falls below that thought of as an acceptable minimum.

1. Income
2. Health
3. Employment
4. Education
5. Access to housing
6. Crime rates
7. Living environment

Cycle of poverty:

It is generally very difficult to break out from the cycle of poverty.

Growing up with poor parents results in children receiving minimal support and minimal education.

Poor accommodation - poor health - poor education - poor occupational skills - poor employment - poor accomodation etc.

London and Ethnic segregation

Gentrification is the process of renovation and revival of a deteriorated neighbourhood. Increasingly, more and more areas in London are being gentrified, minimising the development gap as well as gap of ethnic segregation.

There are external and internal factors that influence ethnic segregation:

Internal:

1. Mutual support for families i.e. community organisations
2. Favourable shops and places of worship close by.
3. Friendships within the ethnic groups.
4. Protection against racial abuse.
5. More opportunities to speak native language.

External:

1. Uneducated/ unemployed ethnic group is forced into cheap housing areas.
2. Discrimination by estate agents.
3. Social hostility from majority of the population.
4. Racially motivated violence against the ethnic group.

Ethnic segregation is the separation of ethnic groups in daily life.

Kibera

Kibera is Africa's largest slum. It is situated in the heart of Nairobi. It is on abandoned land hence it is not the Kenyan government's responsibility.

Statistics:

1. More than one million people live in one square mile in cramped, informal housing made from scrap metal and mud.
2. One toilet can be shared by up to a thousand people.
3. Only 20% of the population have access to electricity.
4. The lack of security and lack of employment leads to crime and gang violence.
5. Only 50% of the population are employed.
6. 20% of the population live with HIV.
7. Only two water pipes flow into Kibera, each laced with Cholera and Typhoid.

St. Vincent de Paul Community Organisation

This is an organisation committed to helping vulnerable children in Kibera. There are so many children whose parents may have passed away due to HIV and St. Vincent's is dedicated to helping these children reach their full potential. There are four programmes:

1. Women's support
2. Nursery centre
3. Rescue centre
4. Education support

1. The women's community support programme is centred around training. Young women are trained to develop their skills into business plans and then set up these businesses and support themselves.

2. The nursery centre and education support is relation to helping young children pay for school fees and provide them with an education. The children are provided with textbooks, stationery and tuition.

3. The rescue centre is a home for orphaned children. It provides them with food and shelter. There is a 'house mother' who looks after these children. These children can reside in a nurturing environment which is important for their development.

Morphology and city-models

Morphology is the study of the internal structure of a city.

There are numerous models depicting cities in varying developed countries such as HICs and LEDCs.

The Burgess and Hoyt model show cities in HICs. The Burgess model is based off of Chicago in 1925.

There are similarities amongst the two models:

1.The outer areas of the model have expensive housing. This is because there is more space, less pollution and easy ways to commute into the city.

2. The cheapest housing used to be the factory-workers'. This is situated around the factories and industries. As this housing is currently undergoing regeneration and re-imaging due to gentrification from young adults, the value is rising. These young adults require easy and quick access to the CBD. In the Burgess Model, this is situated as a circle shape around the factories and industrial areas. In the Hoyt model, the industrial areas are situated along a route of transport i.e. main road/ river. The cheap housing lies besides this.

3. The CBD is full of high value/ dense buildings. Predominantly full of businesses and large corporations who need access to good communications systems. [Agglomeration].

LEDC model:

This model is a portrayal of the inner structure of a low-economically-developed country. Most of its features are reversed to that of an HIC such as the location of expensive properties.

1. The outskirts of the city are concentrated with informal, cramped housing rather than spacious wealthy land like in HICs. These are called favelas.

2. The wealthy areas are located around the CBD where there is easy access to business. This may be a result of no proper way of commuting from the outskirts. Cities such as London and Bangkok have intricate transport systems.

3. Industry is situated along transport routes.

Problems with rapid urbanisation

There are physical and health-related problems associated with rapid urbanisation:

1. Increase in crime rates as more people may be homeless due to overcrowding and lack of housing.
2. Overpopulation puts a strain on public services such as healthcare and education.
3. Limited access to water and electricity due to overcrowding.
4. Lack of housing and employment. May be a rise in the informal sector.
5. Possible deterioration in health due to increases in air pollution and traffic congestion.

Push and pull factors [counter-urbanisation included]

Counter-urbanisation is the movement of people and businesses to rural areas and small towns. It is influenced and increased by several push and pull factors. However, there are various factors propelling urbanisation:

Push:

1. Few employment opportunities in the suburbs.
2. Bad quality education and healthcare in the suburbs.

Pull:

1. Better quality education and health services.
2. Better access to electricity and water.
3. More job opportunities.
4. Good quality accommodation.

Counter-urbanisation:

Push: [note that these expand into problems with rapid urbanisation]

1. Traffic congestion
2. Air pollution
3. Overcrowding
4. Social problems

Pull:

1. Cleaner environment
2. Safer
3. Possible good education and healthcare

Urbanisation

Urbanisation is the increasing percentage of people living in towns or cities.

Key terms:

1. Agglomeration is the increasing concentration of people and economic activities at favourable locations. such as beside rivers or next to a raw material extraction point.

2. Suburbanisation is the growth and expansion of towns outwards.

3. Commuting is the journey to and from work by a means of transport.

4. Urban regeneration is the re-using of old dilapidated parts of the city that were left behind after people moved to the suburbs.

5. Counter-urbanisation is the increasing percentage of people moving to and living in the suburbs and rural areas.

6. Urban re-imaging is the reconstruction of rundown areas of the city.

7. Urbanisation of suburbs is when the density of suburbs is raised to that of an urban level.

8. A millionaire city is a city with a population of more than one million.

9. A megacity is one with a population of more than ten million. Examples include London, New York, Hong Kong etc.

A megacity may grow as a result of four factors:

1. Population growth
2. Economies of scale
3. Multiplier effect
4. Economic development

1. Population growth is influenced by two main factors. Rural to urban migration is common among young adults who are attracted by the possibility of new jobs and better healthcare. These young people are more likely to have children hence there is a high rate of natural increase. Natural increase is the birth rate minus the death rate resulting in the total gain in population.

2. Economies of scale is reference to one large city in contrast to several smaller ones. This large city is more beneficial in terms of transport costs and services. Smaller cities would be too expensive.

3. The multiplier effect is in relation to the prosperity and success a city experiences due to a large growth of population and economic success. This prosperity gathers a momentum to propel the city into more success. More people move to the city hence more services are required and more jobs are needed. As a result, the population grows the cycle of success continues.

4. Economic development is the main factor influencing urbanisation. Where there is economic potential, people move to the city, primarily young adults. A fast, sustainable economic growth attracts more people and a city grows.

Coral Reefs and the SMMA and ecosystems

Soufriere Marine Management Association is an NGO committed to tackling the problem of coral reef damage in St. Lucia.

There are global and local threats to coral reefs around the world:

Global:

1. Ocean acidification is rising due to more pollution and sewage being dumped.
2. Rising water temperatures due to global warming.
3. More lion fish tear apart the coral looking for food.

This results in the bleaching of coral. A prolonged bleaching kills colonies.

Local:

1. Sewage dumped from hotels.
2. Boats dropping their anchors onto coral.
3. Mining and farming of coral. [common in poorer countries].
4. Overharvesting and overfishing of coral for tourism.

The SMMA have chosen to divide the area around St. Lucia into designated areas to combat the damage done to coral reefs from overfishing, destruction by dropped anchors etc.

There are five designated areas:

1. Marine reserves
2. Fishing priority areas.
3. Multiple use areas
4. Yacht mooring areas
5. Recreational Areas

By doing this, they are protecting the coral reefs all while allowing the continuation of economic activities such as fishing.

Coastal ecosystems:

1. Mangroves
2. Salt marsh
3. Sand dunes

Mangroves can vary from shrubs to 60ft trees. They are situated along rivers throughout the coast. They are flooded regularly and have adapted to the changing climate. They can survive choking mud as well as changing water conditions. However, they are thought of as unproductive and smelly hence they are continuously being cleared out and cut down to make room for agricultural land and human settlements. Pollution and toxic waste from industries and perhaps hotels across the coastline damage the mangroves and inhibit their growth.

2. Salt marsh are usually situated behind spits/ tombolos. Anywhere where there is shelter from open sea. Their location is also largely influenced by the climate and weather. Storms and rough seas may disrupt the sand bars/ spits or tombolos and possibly destroy the salt marshes. Overgrazing, tidal flooding and coastal erosion are huge threats to salt marshes.

3. Sand dunes are formed by wind blowing over sand on the shore inland. Sand accumulates where there is vegetation such as marram grass. The prevailing wind has to be onshore. Sand dunes are most threatened by people trampling on them and destroying the vegetation that holds them in place. In places like Studland Bay, flexible boards have been placed on top of the sand dunes to deter people from directly trampling on them.

Studland Bay

Studland bay is an example of a pressured coastline. A pressured coastline is one with multiple user groups with high demand as well as physical risks of erosion and ecosystem damage.

It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site. The national trust, who are responsible for Studland, have decided to not enforce hard engineering but performing a 'managed retreat'. This is where the natural processes are allowed to run their course. No groynes or sea walls have been installed and this has resulted in the beach becoming much more narrow at the southern end.

There are multiple user groups, each with a high demand of space and conflicts with others such as:

1. Naturists
2. Family groups
3. Jet-skiiers
4. Swimmers
5. Dog walkers
6. Horse riders
7. Teenagers [at night]

Conflicts:

1. Families & Naturists
2. Families & Dog walkers
3. Families & Jet skiers
4. Jet skiers & Swimmers
5. Families

Studland is over used and exploited due to its value. Its ecosystems are under threat and are continuously being damaged from:

1. Uncontrolled bonfires
2. Loud noise
3. Trampling and destroying
4. Air pollution from traffic congestion and cars
5. Pollution of the sea water by sunscreen and fuel from jet skis

Ecosystems and habitat:

1. Sand dunes
2. Snakes and lizards in marram grass
3. Eel grass [seahorses] is being destroyed by boat anchors and jet skis.

The marram grass is used to protect the sand dunes yet the disregard for the sand dunes and continuous trampling of them ensures that they are being weakened and destroyed. The marram grass is home to various species and trampling and wind erosion [as exposed by trampling] results in these species being killed and exposed.

Statistics:

1. 14 tonnes of litter left every week during peak season
2. Over 1 million tourists a year
3. Around 6000 parked cars in the peak season [air pollution and traffic congestion]
4. It takes 40/ 50 years for vegetation to regrow after fires.

Management:

Studland bay is now undergoing 'managed retreat'. This means the natural processes are allowed to 'run their course'. The southern side of the bay is heavily eroded and now contains a very narrow beach. Restaurants and cafes are threatened by the erosion of the cliffs.

1. Marram grass is continuously being replanted to ensure the sand dunes are not destroyed
2. Footpaths and flexible board paths are laid over the sand dunes to avoid them being directly trampled on.
3. Only a few access points to the beach to concentrate tourist pressure and steer them away from environmentally vulnerable areas.
4. Bonfires are banned to reduce fire risk. Fires can spread rapidly through the sand dunes, destroying them at a high rate.
5. Fire beaters are placed around the beaches so that in the event of a fire, it would not spread. This minimises the damage.
6. 200+ bins placed to avoid litter being strewn and dumped along the beach. Remember almost 14 tonnes of litter is left every week during peak season.
7. Visitors are educated about the risks to the ecosystem and how to minimise the damage.

Holderness

Holderness is an area on the coastline near East Yorkshire. It is subject to a lot of erosion and susceptible to flooding hence coastal protection has been a priority here for many years. There are various towns along this stretch, each with a carefully assessed management strategy. Some contain costly infrastructure whilst others are not deemed valuable enough for hard engineering.

Here is a list of areas with individual investments in hard engineering:

1. Bridlington, at the north of Holderness, has some costly infrastructure including holiday resorts. As a result, it has installed a 3.6km long sea wall alongside groynes and high masonry.

2. The towns of Ulrome and Skipsea hold over 24 caravan sites combined within 200m of the sea. These are participating in a 'roll back' incase of flooding by which they would all be severely damaged or ruined.

3. The town of Mappleton is home to over a thousand people, most with homes close to the sea front. To prevent damage to the infrastructure in the event of flooding [and erosion], 65,000 tonnes of rock armour have been installed at the base of the cliffs. This area is susceptible to rapid erosion therefore the rock armour has been implemented as a severe precaution.

4. Hornsea and Withernsea are two towns that are both investing in costly sea defences extending over a large area. They have each gained over 2km in rock armour, high masonry, sea walls and groynes. These areas are very prone to erosion.

5. Perhaps the area with the most to lose in terms of economic activity, Easington contains multiple north sea gas terminals, each with an extreme price. The costly infrastructure is the priority in terms of defence and there is a 1km long revetment at the foot of the cliff which the terminals stand.

Coastal management

Coastal management

Coastal management is dependent on the use of the coastal land i.e. conflicts between user groups as well as the physical processes impacting on the coast such as erosion and longshore drift. There are various types of management strategies, most implement some type of reinforcement or mechanical structure. These are called hard engineering.

Remember:

1. Conflicts between user groups
2. Physical risks such as flooding and erosion

The greatest risk to shorelines today is erosion and flooding. The risk of flooding is greatly increased by storm surges. Storm surges invoke low air pressure which rises the level of the sea [at high tide]. Strong winds then cause huge waves across the coast resulting in flooding.

Hard engineering 

Hard engineering is typically used in short term management strategies. It involves some sort of mechanical structure or reinforcement that prevents the movement of sediment along the coast or prevents the coast from being eroded. It is expensive, [can have an impact in areas lower down the coast as it disrupts processes] and generally ruins the landscape. However, they are effective.

Soft engineering

Soft engineering does not involve reinforcements or coastal sea defences. It is more cost-sustainable and involves more management than hard engineering. Some examples are:

1. Beach replenishment
2. Managed retreat
3. Re-vegetation

Most of these focus on repairing and replenishing the landscape but this is time consuming and not always effective.

Beach replenishment is when beaches and shorelines are replenished with sand and shingle from other places. It can be costly to maintain and time consuming due to the transport costs and actual work involving its dispersal. On the other hand, it does not ruin the landscape nor does it disrupt processes occurring elsewhere. This is mostly used where there is valuable land of economic worth such as a tourist attraction.

Managed retreat occurs where there is land of low value such as low-lying farmland. This is chosen when the natural processes are allowed to 'run their course' and flood the land. Floods typically occur during storm surges or when there is a fast rate of erosion.

Re-vegetation is exactly how it sounds. Vegetation such as grass and roots is encouraged to grow in order to stabilise the cliff.

Mass movement

Mass movement is the process by which material flows down a slope as a result of gravity. It is one of the sub-aerial processes alongside weathering. These processes wear down a cliff from above. Along with the marine erosion processes, mass movement can cause cliff retreat.

There are four main types of mass movement:

1. Falls
2. Slides
3. Flows and creeps
4. Rotational slumps

1. Falls occur where there is loose material from rocks perhaps from weathering such as freeze-thaw and root penetration.  The material falls down the steep cliff face and collects at the bottom. A lot of debris accumulates at the base of the cliff.

2. Slides occur when blocks of material slide down the sloping cliff face. There is little deposition at the base of the cliff.

3. Flows and creeps happen when there is water in the soil or a stream nearby. The water loosens the soil and the material slowly flows down the slope where it collects at the base of the plain.

4. Rotational slumps typically occur where there is soft rock. The material slips and spills onto other layers of rock. The plain here is curved.

Headlands, bays and cliffs

Types of coastline 

A concordant coastline is one with the same rock type along the shore.
A discordant coastline is one with various rock types making up the geology of the shore.

Headlands and bays are formed on a discordant coastline. The less resistant rock is eroded at a greater rate than the stronger rock by the marine erosion processes such as hydraulic action and abrasion. As a result it retreats and the stronger rock is left jutting out into the sea. Wave refraction may erode the strong rock but it remains more prominent than the weaker rock hence it juts out into the sea.

Soft rock

1. Clay

Hard rock

1. Chalk

Cliffs

Cliffs are typically steep rock faces at the edge of the sea. They are formed as a result of erosion and weathering with weathering typically occurring on the upper parts of the cliff. Harder, more resistant rock types would be harder to erode therefore they are steeper. On the other hand, softer, less resistant rock are eroded more easily, forming a gently sloping cliff.

Caves, arches, stacks and stumps

Wave cut notch

Wave cut notches are formed by waves between high and low tide lines. A crack in the cliff surface is widened by the marine erosion processes of hydraulic action and abrasion. This leaves a deep cave in the cliff face. As this becomes deeper as a result of more erosion, the overhang is left more unstable and weak. It is unsupported therefore it collapses. This process continues and the cliff retreats as a result.


Caves, arches, stacks and stumps

An arch is formed when a crack in the cliff surface of a headland is widened. It has to be in a headland otherwise it would not be hollow and would instead form a cave. The crack is widened by the marine erosion processes of hydraulic action, abrasion and corrosion. Over time the cracks will be eroded immensely to form wave cut notches and eventually caves. Weathering processes such as salt crystallisation may erode more cracks. As a result of wave refraction, the walls of caves are eroded greatly and the cave is deepened. As the cave deepens, the support for the top of the headland decreases. Wave refraction affects all three faces of the headland. There may be another cave on the opposite side of the headland. The waves would cut through the cave to form an arch. Wave cut notches at the base of the arch would widen it further. Eventually the lack of support for the top of the headland leads it to collapse: forming a new cliff face and a stack. The bottom of the stack is continuously eroded by hydraulic action and abrasion to form wave cut notches. Weathering such as raindrop action and salt crystallisation may weaken the stack from above also. As a result it becomes unstable and unable to support itself. The stack would then form a stump.

Marine processes and sub-aerial processes

The marine erosion processes cause cliff retreat from the base of the cliff. Sub-aerial processes such as weathering and mass movement cause cliff retreat from the top of the cliff. Weathering and mass movement often provide the sediment for the marine erosion processes such as abrasion and attrition.

Weathering is the altercation and breakdown of rock by physical, chemical and biological processes. There are five main types of weathering including chemical, physical and biological weathering:

1. Freeze-thaw
2. Root penetration
3. Oxidation
4. Salt crystallisation
5. Raindrop action

1. Freeze-thaw is when water moves into cracks in the rock during the day. During the night, temperatures drop and the water freezes hence it expands and widens the crack in the rock. When this happens continuously, the rock weakens and begins to break apart.

2. Root penetration is the growth of roots and vegetation into cracks in the rock. They expand the cracks and cause pieces to break off.

3. Oxidation occurs when there is iron present in the rock. This process occurs and causes the rock to rust.

4. Salt crystallisation occurs when salt crystals penetrate the exposed rock face.

5. Raindrop action can affect the rock in two ways: the heavy rain can physically alter the rock's shape whilst its acidity can chemically break it down.

Longshore drift and landforms created

Longshore drift

Longshore drift is the gradual movement of material further along the beach as a result of the waves approaching the beach at an angle. The waves break at this angle as a result of the prevailing wind. This is a wind that is not necessarily the strongest but most common. This only occurs if the waves are destructive.

When this happens, beaches lose their sediment and begin to retreat. In order to prevent this, groynes are often installed to trap the sediment instead of it being transported to the end of the shore.

The sediment transported by longshore drift is either transported as part of:

1. Solution
2. Suspension
3. Saltation
4. Traction

1. Solution is when material has dissolved in the water making it invisible.

2. Suspension is when small particles of rock/ material are carried along in the water, making it appear cloudy.

3. Saltation is when small fragments of material are bounced along the sea bed and are propelled by the force of the water.

4. Traction is when large pieces of sediment are rolled along the sea bed. The current cannot suspend this therefore it is rolled at a slow pace.

Longshore drift can produce various coastal landforms:

1. Spits
2. Tombolos
3. Bars
4. Bayhead beaches

1. A spit is formed when longshore drift extends the shoreline beyond the land. The sediment being transported is deposited in calm, shallow water. The spit may form a curve at the end when the wind direction changes. Where the spit is curved it can shelter an ecosystem such as a salt marsh. The salt marsh would not be ruptured by the sea here.

2. A tombolo is essentially a spit joined to an island. The spit is formed by longshore drift and the sediment is deposited next to the island where there is calm, shallow water as a result of the shelter of the island. Like the curved ends of the spits, tombolos can provide a sheltered space for salt marshes to form.

3. A bar is formed by longshore drift. It is created across a bay and links two headlands. When there is a storm and a river may flood, the bar would be destroyed by the force of the water.

4. Bayhead beaches are spits joining two headlands across a cove.

Types of waves and erosion processes

Waves are formed by wind blowing over the sea. They are not to be confused with a 'tide' which is caused by the moon's gravitational pull. The friction with the sea floor sets the wave in motion.

There are two types of waves: constructive and destructive. As the name implies, destructive waves erode the shoreline more than they deposit sediment. On the other hand, constructive waves are more constructive to the shoreline as they deposit more than they erode.

Constructive

A constructive wave has a strong swash and weak backwash. It has a low wave energy hence it deposits more than it erodes. It has a small amplitude but a huge wave length. Beaches often become steeper as a result of the deposition.

Destructive

A highly energetic wave with a small swash but huge backwash, a destructive wave erodes the shoreline, making it smoother and slope at a gentle angle.

There are four predominant processes of erosion:

1. Hydraulic action
2. Attrition
3. Abrasion
4. Corrosion

1. Hydraulic action is the sheer force of waves against the cliffs. When waves break against the cliff surfaces, the water moves into cracks in the rock, compressing the air inside which increases the pressure. When the water retreats, the pressure immediately decreases and the air is expelled from the rock, causing a small explosion whilst doing so. When this occurs repetitively, the rock is weakened.

2. The process by which rocks and pebbles become more rounded and smooth as they crash and bump into each other.

3. The process by which the cliff surface is eroded by material carried by the waves.

4. Corrosion occurs when the sea is slightly acidic causing the rock to dissolve. This occurs more frequently in certain rock types.